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What Is One Example Of The Symbolic Nature Of Animals As Portrayed In Myths And Legends?

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Type of traditional narrative

Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental part in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since the term myth is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrative equally a myth can exist highly controversial: many adherents of religions view their own religion'south stories as true, and therefore object to those stories being characterized as myths, while seeing the stories of other religions equally beingness myth. Equally such, some scholars label all religious narratives as myths for practical reasons, such as to avoid depreciating any one tradition because cultures translate each other differently relative to one another.[ane] Other scholars avoid using the term "myth" birthday and instead utilize different terms like "sacred history", "holy story", or just "history" to avert placing debasing overtones on any sacred narrative.[2]

Myths are often endorsed by secular and religious authorities and are closely linked to religion or spirituality.[3] Many societies group their myths, legends, and history together, considering myths and legends to be true accounts of their remote past.[3] [4] [5] [6] In particular, creation myths take place in a primordial historic period when the world had not achieved its later form.[3] [seven] [8] Other myths explain how a guild's customs, institutions, and taboos were established and sanctified.[3] [8] There is a circuitous relationship between recital of myths and the enactment of rituals.

The principal characters in myths are usually non-humans, such every bit gods, demigods, and other supernatural figures.[nine] [4] [10] [11] All the same, others also include humans, animals, or combinations in their classification of myth.[12] Stories of everyday human being beings, although frequently of leaders of some type, are commonly contained in legends, as opposed to myths.[9] [11] Myths are sometimes distinguished from legends in that myths deal with gods, commonly have no historical footing, and are set in a world of the remote past, very unlike from that of the present.[11] [13]

Definitions

Myth

Definitions of myth vary to some extent amidst scholars, though Finnish folklorist Lauri Honko offers a widely-cited definition:

Myth, a story of the gods, a religious account of the beginning of the world, the creation, fundamental events, the exemplary deeds of the gods every bit a issue of which the world, nature and culture were created together with all parts thereof and given their gild, which still obtains. A myth expresses and confirms society'southward religious values and norms, it provides a pattern of beliefs to be imitated, testifies to the efficacy of ritual with its practical ends and establishes the sanctity of cult.[two]

Another definition of myth comes from myth criticism theorist and professor José Manuel Losada. According to Cultural myth criticism, the studies of myth must understand and explain a global and imaginary reality and be able to better understand contemporary civilisation.

Myth is an oral, symbolic, evolutionary and apparently simple account (in the sense of a tale, a diegesis, or a series of narrative and representative actions) of an boggling experience or event with a transcendental and personal referent that shows social classification. Considered, in principle, equally bereft of historical testimony, myth is composed by a series of constant or invariable cultural semantic elements which can be reduced to themes, and is endowed with a conflictive (it invariably contains a trial or ordeal), functional character (understood every bit the transmission of mutual values and beliefs, and the provision of factual schemata of rites and actions) and etiological nature (expressing in some mode a particular or universal cosmogony or eschatology).[fourteen]

Scholars in other fields employ the term myth in varied ways.[15] [xvi] [17] In a wide sense, the give-and-take can refer to whatsoever traditional story,[18] [19] [twenty] pop misconception or imaginary entity.[21]

Withal, while myth and other sociology genres may overlap, myth is often thought to differ from genres such equally legend and folktale in that neither are considered to be sacred narratives.[22] [23] Some kinds of folktales, such every bit fairy stories, are not considered true past anyone, and may be seen equally distinct from myths for this reason.[24] [25] [26] Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans,[3] [27] [28] while legends by and large characteristic humans every bit their main characters.[three] [29] All the same, many exceptions or combinations be, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid.[30] [31] Moreover, as stories spread between cultures or as faiths modify, myths can come to be considered folktales, their divine characters recast as either equally humans or demihumans such every bit giants, elves and faeries.[27] [32] [33] Conversely, historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time. For instance, the Matter of Britain (the legendary history of Great Great britain, especially those focused on King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table)[34] and the Thing of France, seem distantly to originate in historical events of the 5th and 8th-centuries respectively, and became mythologised over the following centuries.

In colloquial use, the word myth can too be used of a collectively held belief that has no basis in fact, or any fake story.[35] This usage, which is ofttimes pejorative,[36] arose from labelling the religious myths and beliefs of other cultures as incorrect, but it has spread to cover non-religious behavior also.[37]

However, as ordinarily used by folklorists and academics in other relevant fields, such every bit anthropology, the term myth has no implication whether the narrative may exist understood as true or otherwise.[38] Amidst biblical scholars of both the Sometime and New Testament, the word "myth" has a technical significant, in that it unremarkably refers to "describe the actions of the other‐worldly in terms of this world" such as the Cosmos and the Autumn.[39]

Mythology

Opening lines of one of the Mabinogi myths from the Reddish Book of Hergest (written pre-13c, incorporating pre-Roman myths of Celtic gods):
Gereint vab Erbin. Arthur a deuodes dala llys yg Caerllion ar Wysc...
(Geraint the son of Erbin. Arthur was accustomed to hold his Court at Caerlleon upon Usk...)

In present utilize, mythology usually refers to the collection of myths of a grouping of people.[xl] For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Celtic mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures.[41]

Mythology can also refer to the study of myths and mythologies.

Mythography

The compilation or clarification of myths is sometimes known every bit mythography, a term which can besides be used of a scholarly anthology of myths (or, confusingly, of the study of myths mostly).[42]

Key mythographers in the Classical tradition include:[43]

  • Ovid (43 BCE–17/18 CE), whose tellings of myths have been profoundly influential;
  • Fabius Planciades Fulgentius, a Latin writer of the late-fifth to early-6th centuries, whose Mythologies (Latin: Mitologiarum libri III) gathered and gave moralistic interpretations of a wide range of myths;
  • the anonymous medieval Vatican Mythographers, who adult anthologies of Classical myths that remained influential to the end of the Middle Ages; and
  • Renaissance scholar Natalis Comes, whose ten-volume Mythologiae became a standard source for classical mythology in later on Renaissance Europe.

Other prominent mythographies include the thirteenth-century Prose Edda attributed to the Icelander Snorri Sturluson, which is the master surviving survey of Norse Mythology from the Eye Ages.

Jeffrey G. Snodgrass (professor of anthropology at the Colorado State Academy[44]) has termed India's Bhats as mythographers.[45]

Myth criticism

Myth criticism is a arrangement of anthropological interpretation of culture created past French philosopher Gilbert Durand. Scholars accept used myth criticism to explain the mythical roots of contemporary fiction, which means that modern myth criticism needs to exist interdisciplinary.

Cultural myth criticism, without abandoning the analysis of the symbolic, invades all cultural manifestations and delves into the difficulties in understanding myth today. This cultural myth criticism studies mythical manifestations in fields equally wide as literature, film and television, theater, sculpture, painting, video games, music, dancing, the Internet and other artistic fields.

Myth criticism, a subject field that studies myths (mythology contains them, like a pantheon its statues), is by nature interdisciplinary: it combines the contributions of literary theory, the history of literature, the fine arts and the new ways of dissemination in the historic period of communication. Likewise, information technology undertakes its object of study from its interrelation with other human being and social sciences, in particular sociology, anthropology and economics. The need for an arroyo, for a methodology that allows u.s.a. to sympathize the complication of the myth and its manifestations in contemporary times, is justified.[46]

Mythos

Considering myth is sometimes used in a pejorative sense, some scholars have opted to use the term mythos instead.[41] Withal, mythos at present more commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a "plot signal" or to a body of interconnected myths or stories, especially those belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition.[47] It is sometimes used specifically for modern, fictional mythologies, such every bit the earth edifice of H. P. Lovecraft.

Mythopoeia

Mythopoeia (mytho- + -poeia, 'I brand myth') was termed by J. R. R. Tolkien, amidst others, to refer to the "conscious generation" of mythology.[48] [49] It was notoriously as well suggested, separately, by Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg.

Etymology

Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, past Francesco Hayez, 1813–fifteen

The word myth comes from Ancient Greek μῦθος (mȳthos),[50] meaning 'speech, narrative, fiction, myth, plot'. In Anglicised class, this Greek word began to be used in English (and was too adapted into other European languages) in the early on 19th century, in a much narrower sense, equally a scholarly term for "[a] traditional story, especially one apropos the early history of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events."[35] [47]

In turn, Ancient Greek μυθολογία (mythología, 'story,' 'lore,' 'legends,' or 'the telling of stories') combines the word mȳthos with the suffix -λογία (-logia, 'study') in order to hateful 'romance, fiction, story-telling.'[51] Appropriately, Plato used mythología as a general term for 'fiction' or 'story-telling' of whatever kind.

The Greek term mythología was then borrowed into Belatedly Latin, occurring in the championship of Latin author Fulgentius' fifth-century Mythologiæ to denote what nosotros now telephone call classical mythology—i.east., Greco-Roman etiological stories involving their gods. Fulgentius' Mythologiæ explicitly treated its subject thing as allegories requiring interpretation and not as true events.[52]

The Latin term was then adopted in Center French as mythologie. Whether from French or Latin usage, English adopted the discussion mythology in the 15th century, initially meaning 'the exposition of a myth or myths,' 'the estimation of fables,' or 'a book of such expositions'. The word is first attested in John Lydgate's Troy Volume (c. 1425).[53] [55] [56]

From Lydgate until the 17th or 18th century, mythology was used to hateful a moral, fable, allegory or a parable, or collection of traditional stories,[53] [58] understood to be false. It came eventually to be practical to similar bodies of traditional stories among other polytheistic cultures around the world.[53]

Thus the give-and-take mythology entered the English earlier the give-and-take myth. Johnson'southward Dictionary, for example, has an entry for mythology, but not for myth.[61] Indeed, the Greek loanword mythos [63] (pl. mythoi) and Latinate mythus [65] (pl. mythi) both appeared in English earlier the beginning instance of myth in 1830.[68]

Interpreting myths

Comparative mythology

Comparative mythology is a systematic comparing of myths from dissimilar cultures. It seeks to discover underlying themes that are mutual to the myths of multiple cultures. In some cases, comparative mythologists use the similarities between separate mythologies to fence that those mythologies have a common source. This source may inspire myths or provide a common "protomythology" that diverged into the mythologies of each culture.[69]

Functionalism

A number of commentators have argued that myths function to course and shape society and social behaviour. Eliade argued that one of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for beliefs[lxx] [71] and that myths may provide a religious experience. Past telling or reenacting myths, members of traditional societies detach themselves from the present, returning to the mythical age, thereby coming closer to the divine.[5] [71] [72]

Honko asserted that, in some cases, a gild reenacts a myth in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of the mythical historic period. For instance, information technology might reenact the healing performed past a god at the beginning of time in order to heal someone in the nowadays.[2] Similarly, Barthes argued that modern civilization explores religious experience. Since it is not the job of science to define human morality, a religious feel is an attempt to connect with a perceived moral past, which is in contrast with the technological present.[73]

Pattanaik defines mythology equally "the subjective truth of people communicated through stories, symbols and rituals."[74] He says, "Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody'due south truth. Myths are somebody's truth."[75]

Euhemerism

One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.[76] [77] According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the condition of gods.[76] [77] For example, the myth of the wind-god Aeolus may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and translate the winds.[76] Herodotus (fifth-century BCE) and Prodicus made claims of this kind.[77] This theory is named euhemerism after mythologist Euhemerus (c. 320 BCE), who suggested that Greek gods adult from legends about man beings.[77] [78]

Allegory

Some theories propose that myths began equally allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents the lord's day, Poseidon represents h2o, and then on.[77] According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite romantic want, and so on.[77] Müller supported an emblematic theory of myth. He believed myths began every bit emblematic descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic clarification of the sea every bit "raging" was eventually taken literally and the body of water was and then idea of equally a raging god.[79]

Personification

Some thinkers claimed that myths result from the personification of objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshiped natural phenomena, such as fire and air, gradually deifying them.[80] For case, according to this theory, ancients tended to view things as gods, not equally mere objects.[81] Thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, giving rising to myths.[82]

Myth-ritual theory

According to the myth-ritual theory, myth is tied to ritual.[83] In its most farthermost form, this theory claims myths arose to explain rituals.[84] This claim was get-go put forrad by Smith,[85] who argued that people begin performing rituals for reasons not related to myth. Forgetting the original reason for a ritual, they account for it by inventing a myth and claiming the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth.[86] James George Frazer — writer of "The Gold Bough", a book on the comparative study of mythology and religion — argued that humans started out with a belief in magical rituals; later on, they began to lose organized religion in magic and invented myths most gods, reinterpreting their rituals as religious rituals intended to appease the gods.[87]

History of the academic field of study

Historically, important approaches to the report of mythology have included those of Vico, Schelling, Schiller, Jung, Freud, Lévy-Bruhl, Lévi-Strauss, Frye, the Soviet schoolhouse, and the Myth and Ritual School.[88]

Ancient Greece

The critical interpretation of myth began with the Presocratics.[89] Euhemerus was ane of the most important pre-mod mythologists. He interpreted myths every bit accounts of actual historical events, though distorted over many retellings.

Sallustius divided myths into 5 categories:[90]

  • theological;
  • concrete (or concerning natural law);
  • animistic (or apropos soul);
  • material; and
  • mixed, which concerns myths that show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and are specially used in initiations.

Plato famously condemned poetic myth when discussing pedagogy in the Republic. His critique was primarily on the grounds that the uneducated might take the stories of gods and heroes literally. Yet, he constantly referred to myths throughout his writings. As Platonism developed in the phases commonly called Middle Platonism and neoplatonism, writers such equally Plutarch, Porphyry, Proclus, Olympiodorus, and Damascius wrote explicitly well-nigh the symbolic estimation of traditional and Orphic myths.[91]

Mythological themes were consciously employed in literature, commencement with Homer. The resulting work may expressly refer to a mythological background without itself becoming part of a body of myths (Cupid and Psyche). Medieval romance in particular plays with this process of turning myth into literature. Euhemerism, as stated earlier, refers to the rationalization of myths, putting themes formerly imbued with mythological qualities into pragmatic contexts. An instance of this would be post-obit a cultural or religious paradigm shift (notably the re-interpretation of pagan mythology following Christianization).

European Renaissance

The ancient Roman poet Ovid, in his "The Metamorphoses," told the story of the nymph Io who was seduced by Jupiter, the king of the gods. When his wife Juno became jealous, Jupiter transformed Io into a heifer to protect her. This panel relates the second half of the story. In the upper left, Jupiter emerges from clouds to order Mercury to rescue Io. In the lower-left, Mercury guides his herd to the spot where Io is guarded by the hundred-eyed Argus. In the upper center, Mercury, disguised as a shepherd, lulls Argus to sleep and beheads him. Juno then takes Argus's eyes to ornament the tail feathers of her peacock and sends the Furies to pursue Io, who flees to the Nile River. At last, Jupiter prevails on his wife to cease tormenting the nymph, who, upon resuming her natural form, escapes to the forest and ultimately becomes the Egyptian goddess Isis

Interest in polytheistic mythology revived during the Renaissance, with early works of mythography appearing in the sixteenth century, among them the Theologia Mythologica (1532).

Nineteenth century

The first modernistic, Western scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the 19th century[89]—at the aforementioned time every bit the word myth was adopted as a scholarly term in European languages.[35] [47] They were driven partly by a new interest in Europe's aboriginal past and colloquial culture, associated with Romantic Nationalism and epitomised past the enquiry of Jacob Grimm (1785–1863). This movement drew European scholars' attention not only to Classical myths, but also material now associated with Norse mythology, Finnish mythology, and and then forth. Western theories were also partly driven by Europeans' efforts to comprehend and control the cultures, stories and religions they were encountering through colonialism. These encounters included both extremely one-time texts such as the Sanskrit Rigveda and the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, and current oral narratives such as mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas or stories told in traditional African religions.[94]

The intellectual context for nineteenth-century scholars was profoundly shaped past emerging ideas nearly development. These ideas included the recognition that many Eurasian languages—and therefore, conceivably, stories—were all descended from a lost common ancestor (the Indo-European language) which could rationally be reconstructed through the comparison of its descendant languages. They also included the idea that cultures might evolve in ways comparable to species.[94] In general, 19th-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete style of thought, often by interpreting myth every bit the primitive counterpart of modern science within a unilineal framework that imagined that human being cultures are travelling, at different speeds, along a linear path of cultural development.[95]

Nature mythology

Ane of the dominant mythological theories of the latter 19th century was nature mythology, the foremost exponents of which included Max Müller and Edward Burnett Tylor. This theory posited that "primitive man" was primarily concerned with the natural world. It tended to interpret myths that seemed distasteful to European Victorians—such as tales nearly sex activity, incest, or cannibalism—as being metaphors for natural phenomena like agricultural fertility.[96] Unable to conceive impersonal natural laws, early humans tried to explicate natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, thus giving ascension to animism.

Co-ordinate to Tylor, human thought evolved through stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas.[97] Müller also saw myth equally originating from language, fifty-fifty calling myth a "disease of language." He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages. Anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were somewhen taken literally, leading to the thought that natural phenomena were in actuality conscious beings or gods.[79] Not all scholars, non even all 19th-century scholars, accepted this view, however: Lucien Lévy-Bruhl claimed that "the primitive mentality is a condition of the homo mind and not a stage in its historical development."[98] Recent scholarship, noting the fundamental lack of evidence for "nature mythology" interpretations among people who really circulated myths, has likewise abandoned the fundamental ideas of "nature mythology."[99] [96]

Myth and ritual

Frazer saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law. This idea was central to the "myth and ritual" school of thought.[100] According to Frazer, humans begin with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When they realize applications of these laws do not work, they requite up their belief in natural police force in favor of a conventionalities in personal gods decision-making nature, thus giving ascent to religious myths. Meanwhile, humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally, humans come to realize nature follows natural laws, and they discover their truthful nature through science. Here once more, science makes myth obsolete as humans progress "from magic through religion to science."[87] Segal asserted that by pitting mythical thought confronting modern scientific thought, such theories imply modernistic humans must abandon myth.[101]

Twentieth century

The before 20th century saw major work developing psychoanalytical approaches to interpreting myth, led by Sigmund Freud, who, cartoon inspiration from Classical myth, began developing the concept of the Oedipus complex in his 1899 The Estimation of Dreams. Jung likewise tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he chosen archetypes. He believed similarities between the myths of different cultures reveals the existence of these universal archetypes.[102]

The mid-20th century saw the influential evolution of a structuralist theory of mythology, led past Lévi-Strauss. Strauss argued that myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as stock-still mental structures, specifically pairs of opposites (skilful/evil, compassionate/callous), rather than unconscious feelings or urges.[103] Meanwhile, Bronislaw Malinowski developed analyses of myths focusing on their social functions in the existent world. He is associated with the idea that myths such as origin stories might provide a "mythic charter"—a legitimisation—for cultural norms and social institutions.[104] Thus, following the Structuralist Era (c. 1960s–1980s), the predominant anthropological and sociological approaches to myth increasingly treated myth as a class of narrative that tin be studied, interpreted, and analyzed similar ideology, history, and civilization. In other words, myth is a form of agreement and telling stories that are continued to ability, political structures, and political and economic interests.[ citation needed ]

These approaches contrast with approaches, such as those of Joseph Campbell and Eliade, which hold that myth has some type of essential connection to ultimate sacred meanings that transcend cultural specifics. In particular, myth was studied in relation to history from diverse social sciences. Most of these studies share the supposition that history and myth are non distinct in the sense that history is factual, real, authentic, and truth, while myth is the contrary.[ citation needed ]

In the 1950s, Barthes published a serial of essays examining modernistic myths and the process of their cosmos in his book Mythologies, which stood as an early on work in the emerging post-structuralist approach to mythology, which recognised myths' existence in the modern earth and in pop culture.[73]

The 20th century saw rapid secularisation in Western culture. This made Western scholars more willing to analyse narratives in the Abrahamic religions as myths; theologians such as Rudolf Bultmann argued that a modernistic Christianity needed to demythologize;[105] and other religious scholars embraced the thought that the mythical status of Abrahamic narratives was a legitimate feature of their importance.[101] This, in his appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, and in The Myth of the Eternal Return, Eliade attributed modern humans' anxieties to their rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred.[ citation needed ]

The Christian theologian Conrad Hyers wrote:[106]

[Grand]yth today has come to take negative connotations which are the complete opposite of its pregnant in a religious context... In a religious context, yet, myths are storied vehicles of supreme truth, the almost basic and important truths of all. By them, people regulate and interpret their lives and find worth and purpose in their existence. Myths put one in bear on with sacred realities, the primal sources of being, power, and truth. They are seen not only as being the opposite of error but too as being conspicuously distinguishable from stories told for amusement and from the workaday, domestic, practical language of a people. They provide answers to the mysteries of being and becoming, mysteries which, as mysteries, are subconscious, yet mysteries which are revealed through story and ritual. Myths bargain not merely with truth only with ultimate truth.

Xx-first century

Both in 19th-century research, which tended to see existing records of stories and folklore as imperfect fragments of partially lost myths, and in 20th-century structuralist piece of work, which sought to identify underlying patterns and structures in oft diverse versions of a given myth, there had been a tendency to synthesise sources to endeavour to reconstruct what scholars supposed to be more perfect or underlying forms of myths. From the belatedly 20th century, withal, researchers influenced by postmodernism tended instead to argue that each account of a given myth has its ain cultural significance and meaning, and argued that rather than representing deposition from a once again perfect grade, myths are inherently plastic and variable.[107] There is, consequently, no such thing every bit the 'original version' or 'original form' of a myth. Ane prominent example of this movement was A. K. Ramanujan's essay "Iii Hundred Ramayanas".[108] [109]

Correspondingly, scholars challenged the precedence that had in one case been given to texts every bit a medium for mythology, arguing that other media, such as the visual arts or even landscape and place-naming, could be as or more than of import.[110]

Myth in modernity

Scholars in the field of cultural studies research how myth has worked itself into modern discourses. Mythological discourse can reach greater audiences than ever before via digital media. Diverse mythic elements announced in pop culture, as well every bit television, cinema and video games.[111]

Although myth was traditionally transmitted through the oral tradition on a small scale, the film industry has enabled filmmakers to transmit myths to big audiences via motion-picture show.[112] In Jungian psychology myths are the expression of a culture or society'southward goals, fears, ambitions and dreams.[113]

The basis of modern visual storytelling is rooted in the mythological tradition. Many contemporary films rely on ancient myths to construct narratives. The Walt Disney Company is well-known among cultural written report scholars for "reinventing" traditional childhood myths.[114] While many films are not as obvious as Disney fairy tales, the plots of many films are based on the rough construction of myths. Mythological archetypes, such as the cautionary tale regarding the corruption of technology, battles betwixt gods and cosmos stories, are frequently the subject of major film productions. These films are ofttimes created nether the guise of cyberpunk action films, fantasy, dramas and apocalyptic tales.[115]

21st-century films such every bit Clash of the Titans, Immortals and Thor go on the trend of using traditional mythology to frame modern plots. Authors utilise mythology as a footing for their books, such equally Rick Riordan, whose Percy Jackson and the Olympians serial is situated in a modern-twenty-four hours world where the Greek deities are manifest.[116]

Run into also

  • Listing of mythologies
  • List of mythological objects
  • List of mythology books and sources
  • Magic and mythology
  • Mythopoeia, artificially constructed mythology, mainly for the purpose of storytelling

Notes

  1. ^ David Leeming (2005). "Preface". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford Academy Printing. p. vii, xii. ISBN978-0-xix-515669-0.
  2. ^ a b c Honko 1984, pp. 41–42, 49.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Bascom 1965, p. ix.
  4. ^ a b Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud, eds. 2003. "Myths." In A Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN 9780191726644.
  5. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 23.
  6. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, p. 102.
  7. ^ Dundes 1984, p. 1.
  8. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 6.
  9. ^ a b Bascom 1965, p. 4,5, Myths are often associated with theology and ritual. Their master characters are not unremarkably human being beings, only they oft have man attributes; they are animals, deities, or culture heroes, whose actions are gear up in an earlier world, when the earth was different from what information technology is today, or in some other world such every bit the sky or underworld....Legends are more than ofttimes secular than sacred, and their principal characters are man. They tell of migrations, wars and victories, deeds of past heroes, chiefs, and kings, and succession in ruling dynasties..
  10. ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1975). Hindu Myths. Penguin. p. 19. ISBN978-0-14-044306-6. I call up it can exist well argued every bit a thing of principle that, just as 'biography is about chaps', so mythology is most gods.
  11. ^ a b c Baldick, Chris (2015). Legend. The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (4 ed.). Oxford University Press - Oxford Reference Online. ISBN978-0-xix-871544-3. A story or group of stories handed down through popular oral tradition, usually consisting of an exaggerated or unreliable business relationship of some actually or mayhap historical person—often a saint, monarch, or popular hero. Legends are sometimes distinguished from myths in that they concern human beings rather than gods, and sometimes in that they take some sort of historical basis whereas myths do not; only these distinctions are difficult to maintain consistently. The term was originally applied to accounts of saints' lives..
  12. ^ Winzeler, Robert Fifty. (2008). Anthropology and Religion: What Nosotros Know, Remember, and Question. Rowman Altamira. p. 120. ISBN978-0-7591-1046-5.
  13. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 4-5, Myths are oft associated with theology and ritual...Their master characters are not commonly human beings, but they often have man attributes; they are animals, deities, or culture heroes, whose deportment are fix in an earlier earth, when the earth was different from what it is today, or in another world such as the sky or underworld. Myths account for the origin of the world, of mankind, of death....
  14. ^ Losada, José Manuel (2012). "The Subversive Triad: A Theoretical Approach". Myth and Subversion in the Contemporary Novel. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. four. ISBN978-1443837460.
  15. ^ Dundes 1984, p. 147.
  16. ^ Doty 2004, pp. eleven–12.
  17. ^ Segal 2015, p. 5.
  18. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 57.
  19. ^ Kirk 1973, p. 74.
  20. ^ Apollodorus 1976, p. 3.
  21. ^ "myth". Merriam-Webster'south Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1993. p. 770.
  22. ^ Salamon, Hagar; Goldberg, Harvey E. (2012). "Myth-Ritual-Symbol". In Bendix, Regina F.; Hasan-Rokem, Galit (eds.). A Companion to Folklore. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 125. ISBN9781405194990.
  23. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 7.
  24. ^ Bascom 1965, pp. nine, 17.
  25. ^ Eliade 1998, pp. ten–xi.
  26. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, pp. 99–101.
  27. ^ a b Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud, eds. 2003. "Myths." In A Lexicon of English language Folklore. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191726644.
  28. ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1975). Hindu Myths. Penguin. p. 19. ISBN978-0-fourteen-044306-half dozen. I think it tin be well argued every bit a matter of principle that, simply equally 'biography is about chaps', and then mythology is about gods.
  29. ^ Baldick, Chris (2015). Legend. The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (4 ed.). Oxford Academy Press - Oxford Reference Online. ISBN978-0-nineteen-871544-3. A story or grouping of stories handed down through popular oral tradition, usually consisting of an exaggerated or unreliable account of some actually or mayhap historical person—often a saint, monarch, or popular hero. Legends are sometimes distinguished from myths in that they business organisation homo beings rather than gods, and sometimes in that they accept some sort of historical ground whereas myths practise non; but these distinctions are difficult to maintain consistently. The term was originally applied to accounts of saints' lives..
  30. ^ Kirk 1973, pp. 22, 32.
  31. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 55.
  32. ^ Doty 2004, p. 114.
  33. ^ Bascom 1965, p. xiii.
  34. ^ "romance | literature and performance". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 6 Nov 2017.
  35. ^ a b c "Myth." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020. § 2.
  36. ^ Howells, Richard (1999). The Myth of the Titanic. Macmillan. ISBN978-0-312-22148-5.
  37. ^ Eliade, Mircea. 1967. Myths, Dreams and Mysteries. pp. 23, 162.
  38. ^ Winzeler, Robert Fifty. 2012. Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Retrieve, and Question. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 105–06.
  39. ^ Browning, Due west. R. F. (2010). Myth. A Dictionary of the Bible (two ed.). Oxford University Press - Oxford Reference Online. ISBN978-0-nineteen-954398-four. In modern parlance, a myth is a fable or fairy‐story unbelievable and untrue merely still disseminated. It has a more technical meaning in biblical studies and covers those stories or narratives which describe the actions of the other‐worldly in terms of this world, in both OT and NT. In Genesis the Creation and the Fall are myths, and are markedly similar to the creation stories of State of israel'southward Virtually Eastern neighbours.
  40. ^ Kirk 1973, p. 8.
  41. ^ a b Grassie, William (March 1998). "Science every bit Ballsy? Tin the modern evolutionary cosmology exist a mythic story for our time?". Scientific discipline & Spirit. 9 (1). The give-and-take 'myth' is popularly understood to mean idle fancy, fiction, or falsehood; simply in that location is some other significant of the discussion in academic discourse... Using the original Greek term mythos is peradventure a better way to distinguish this more positive and extensive definition of the word.
  42. ^ "Mythography." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  43. ^ Take chances, Jane. 1994–2000. Medieval Mythography, two vols. Gainesville.
  44. ^ Horton, Katie (3 August 2015). "Dr. Snodgrass editor of new blog serial: Bioculturalism". Colorado State University . Retrieved 28 October 2020.
  45. ^ Snodgrass, Jeffrey Thousand. (2004). "Hail to the Chief?: The Politics and Poetics of a Rajasthani 'Child Cede'". Civilization and Religion. 5 (1): 71–104. doi:10.1080/0143830042000200364. ISSN 1475-5629. OCLC 54683133. S2CID 144663317.
  46. ^ Losada, José Manuel (2015). "Mitocrítica y metodología". Nuevas formas del mito. Logos Verlag. p. nine. ISBN978-3-8325-4040-1.
  47. ^ a b c "mythos, n." 2003. In Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Printing.
  48. ^ "Mythopoeia." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford Academy Press. 31 May 2020.
  49. ^ See also: Mythopoeia (poem); cf. Tolkien, J. R. R. [1964] 2001. Tree and Leaf; Mythopoeia; The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm'due south Son. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-710504-v.
  50. ^ "myth | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved eleven January 2021.
  51. ^ "-logy, comb. form." In Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academy Printing. 1903.
  52. ^ Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades (1971). Fulgentius the Mythographer. Ohio Land University Printing. ISBN978-0-8142-0162-6.
  53. ^ a b c "mythology, n.." Oxford English Lexicon (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academy Press. 2003. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.
  54. ^ Lydgate, John. Troyyes Book, Vol. II, ll. 2487. (in Heart English language) Reprinted in Henry Bergen'southward Lydgate'southward Troy Book, Vol. I, p. 216. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, & Co. (London), 1906. Accessed xx Aug 2014.
  55. ^ "...I [ Paris ] was ravisched in-to paradys.
    "And Þus Þis god [sc. Mercury], diuers of liknes,
    "More than wonderful Þan I can expresse,
    "Schewed hym silf in his appearance,
    "Liche as he is discriued in Fulgence,
    "In Þe book of his methologies..."[54]
  56. ^ Harper, Douglas. 2020. "Mythology." Online Etymology Dictionary.
  57. ^ Browne, Thomas. Pseudodoxia Epidemica: or, Enquiries into Many Received Tenets and Commonly Presumed Truths, Vol. I, Ch. VIII. Edward Dod (London), 1646. Reprinted 1672.
  58. ^ All which [sc. John Mandevil's back up of Ctesias's claims] may even so exist received in some acceptions of morality, and to a pregnant invention, may beget commendable mythologie; but in a natural and proper exposition, information technology containeth impossibilities, and things inconsistent with truth.[57]
  59. ^ Johnson, Samuel. "Mythology" in A Lexicon of the English: In which the Words are Deduced from their Originals, and Illustrated in their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers to which are Prefixed a History of the Language and an English language Grammar, p. 1345. Westward. Strahan (London), 1755.
  60. ^ Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English language Language, p. 1345. West. Strahan (London), 1755. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.
  61. ^ Johnson's Dictionary, for example, has entries for mythology,[59] mythologist, mythologize, mythological, and mythologically [lx]
  62. ^ Shuckford, Samuel. The Cosmos and Autumn of Man. A Supplemental Soapbox to the Preface of the Outset Volume of the Sacred and Profane History of the World Connected, pp. xx–xxi. J. & R. Tonson & Southward. Draper (London), 1753. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.
  63. ^ "That Mythology came in upon this Alteration of their [Egyptians' Theology, is obviouſly axiomatic: for the mingling the Hiſtory of theſe Men when Mortals, with what came to be aſcribed to them when Gods, would naturally occaſion it. And of this Sort we generally find the Mythoi told of them..."[62]
  64. ^ Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "On the Prometheus of Æschylus: An Essay, preparatory to a series of disquisitions respecting the Egyptian, in connection with the sacerdotal, theology, and in dissimilarity with the mysteries of ancient Greece." Royal Order of Literature (London), eighteen May 1825. Reprinted in Coleridge, Henry Nelson (1836). The Literary Remains of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Shakespeare, with an introductory matter on poesy, the drama, and the stage. Notes on Ben Jonson; Beaumont and Fletcher; On the Prometheus of Æschylus [and others. Due west. Pickering. pp. 335–.
  65. ^ "Long earlier the entire separation of metaphysics from poetry, that is, while withal verse, in all its several species of verse, music, bronze, &c. connected mythic;—while yet poetry remained the union of the sensuous and the philosophic heed;—the efficient presence of the latter in the synthesis of the two, had manifested itself in the sublime mythus περὶ γενέσεως τοῦ νοῦ ἐν ἀνθρωποῖς concerning the genesis, or the birth of the νοῦς or reason in man."[64]
  66. ^ Abraham of Hekel (1651). "Historia Arabum(History of the Arabs)". Chronicon orientale, nunc primum Latinitate donatum ab Abrahamo Ecchellensi Syro Maronita e Libano, linguarum Syriacae, ... cui accessit eiusdem Supplementum historiae orientalis (The Oriental Chronicles. e Typographia regia. pp. 175–. (in Latin) Translated in paraphrase in Blackwell, Thomas (1748). "Letter Seventeenth". Letters Concerning Mythology. printed in the twelvemonth. pp. 269–.
  67. ^ Anonymous review of Upham, Edward (1829). The History and Doctrine of Budhism: Popularly Illustrated: with Notices of the Kappooism, Or Demon Worship, and of the Bali, Or Planetary Incantations, of Ceylon. R. Ackermann. In the Westminster Review, No. XXIII, Art. III, p. 44. Rob't Heward (London), 1829. Accessed xx Aug 2014.
  68. ^ "According to the rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, Enos, discoursing on the splendor of the heavenly bodies, insisted that, since God had thus exalted them above the other parts of cosmos, it was but reasonable that we should praise, extol, and honour them. The event of this exhortation, says the rabbi, was the edifice of temples to the stars, and the institution of idolatry throughout the world. By the Arabian divines, however, the imputation is laid upon the patriarch Abraham; who, they say, on coming out from the nighttime cave in which he had been brought up, was so astonished at the sight of the stars, that he worshipped Hesperus, the Moon, and the Sunday successively as they rose.[66] These two stories are skilful illustrations of the origin of myths, by means of which, even the most natural sentiment is traced to its cause in the circumstances of fabled history.[67]
  69. ^ Littleton 1973, p. 32.
  70. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 8.
  71. ^ a b Honko 1984, p. 51.
  72. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 19.
  73. ^ a b Barthes 1972, p.[ page needed ].
  74. ^ Sinha, Namya (4 July 2016). "No club tin exist without myth, says Devdutt Pattanaik". Hindustan Times . Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  75. ^ Shaikh, Jamal (8 July 2018). "Interview: Devdutt Pattanaik "Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody's truth. Myths are somebody'south truth"". Hindustan Times . Retrieved 13 Apr 2020.
  76. ^ a b c Bulfinch 2004, p. 194.
  77. ^ a b c d east f Honko 1984, p. 45.
  78. ^ "Euhemerism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
  79. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. xx.
  80. ^ Bulfinch 2004, p. 195.
  81. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. four.
  82. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. 15.
  83. ^ Segal 2015, p. 61.
  84. ^ Graf 1996, p. 40.
  85. ^ Meletinsky 2014, pp. 19–twenty.
  86. ^ Segal 2015, p. 63.
  87. ^ a b Frazer 1913, p. 711.
  88. ^ Lanoue, Guy. Foreword. In Meletinsky (2014), p. viii..
  89. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. ane.
  90. ^ "On the Gods and the Earth." ch. 5; Encounter: Nerveless Writings on the Gods and the World. Frome: The Prometheus Trust. 1995.
  91. ^ Maybe the nearly extended passage of philosophic interpretation of myth is to be constitute in the fifth and sixth essays of Proclus' Commentary on the Democracy (to be institute in The Works of Plato I, trans. Thomas Taylor, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1996); Porphyry's assay of the Homeric Cave of the Nymphs is another important work in this area (Select Works of Porphyry, Thomas Taylor The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1994). Run into the external links below for a total English language translation.
  92. ^ "The Myth of Io". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved eighteen December 2015.
  93. ^ For more data on this panel, please see Zeri catalogue number 64, pp. 100–101
  94. ^ a b Shippey, Tom. 2005. "A Revolution Reconsidered: Mythography and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century." Pp. ane–28 in The Shadow-Walkers: Jacob Grimm'south Mythology of the Monstrous, edited by T. Shippey. Tempe, AZ: Arizona Heart for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. pp. iv–13.
  95. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 3–iv.
  96. ^ a b McKinnell, John. 2005. Coming together the Other in Norse Myth and Fable. Cambridge: Brewer. pp. 14-fifteen.
  97. ^ Segal 2015, p. four.
  98. ^ Mâche, Francois-Bernard (1992). Music, Myth and Nature, or The Dolphins of Arion. p. eight. ISBN978-three-7186-5321-8.
  99. ^ Dorson, Richard M. 1955. "The Eclipse of Solar Mythology." Pp. 25–63 in Myth: A Symposium, edited past T. A. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  100. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 67–68.
  101. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 3.
  102. ^ Boeree.[ full commendation needed ]
  103. ^ Segal 2015, p. 113.
  104. ^ Birenbaum, Harvey. 1988. Myth and Mind. Lanham, Physician: Academy Printing of America. pp. 152–53.
  105. ^ Bultmann, Rudolf. 1958. Jesus Christ and Mythology. New York: Scribner.
  106. ^ Hyers 1984, p. 107.
  107. ^ For example: McKinnell, John. 1994. Both One and Many: Essays on Modify and Variety in Belatedly Norse Heathenism, (Philologia: saggi, ricerche, edizioni 1, edited past T. Pàroli). Rome.
  108. ^ Ramanujan, A. G. 1991. "3 Hundred Rāmāyaṇas: Five Examples and 3 Thoughts on Translation." Pp. 22–48 in Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia, edited by P. Richman. Berkeley: University of California Printing. ark:13030/ft3j49n8h7/
  109. ^ Ramanujan, A. M. [1991] 2004. "Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas." Pp. 131–60 in The Nerveless Essays of A. M. Ramanujan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-566896-4.
  110. ^ For example: Dowden, Ken. 1992. The Uses of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge.
  111. ^ Ostenson, Jonathan (2013). "Exploring the Boundaries of Narrative: Video Games in the English language Classroom" (PDF). www2.ncte.org/.
  112. ^ Vocaliser, Irving (2008). Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Pic. MIT Printing. pp. 3–six.
  113. ^ Indick, William (2004). "Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero". Journal of Media Psychology.
  114. ^ Koven, Michael (2003). Folklore Studies and Popular Picture show and Goggle box: A Necessary Critical Survey. Academy of Illinois Press. pp. 176–195.
  115. ^ Corner 1999, pp. 47–59.
  116. ^ Mead, Rebecca (22 October 2014). "The Percy Jackson Problem". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 6 Nov 2017.

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External links

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth

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